Hybrid vehicles (HEV) and electric vehicles (EV) use chargeable-dischargeable power sources. Secondary batteries such as lithium-ion batteries are typical power sources for HEV and EV vehicles. Lithium-ion secondary batteries typically use carbon, such as graphite, as the anode electrode. Graphite materials are very stable and exhibit good cycle-life and durability. However, graphite material suffers from a low theoretical lithium storage capacity of only about 372 mAh/g. This low storage capacity results in poor energy density of the lithium-ion battery and low electric mileage per charge.